Who Wrote The First European Novel? The Unyielding Vindication of Homer’s Epic Works and the Birth of Prose Fiction

The question of who authored the first European novel finds its answer not in the shadow of polished manuscripts or celebrated poets—but in the monumental lithos of ancient Greece, a work often misclassified as poetry yet undeniably the foundation of narrative fiction. The novel, as a distinct literary form, emerged not from verse but from prose, and the earliest surviving candidate is widely recognized as *The Histories* of Herodotus—though scholars debate whether the true first novel lies in a different tradition. What is certain is that the novel’s origins are entangled with the cultural crossroads of the Mediterranean, where storytelling evolved from myth to mannered character, plot, and human agency in history.

This article unravels the contested lineage, examines key candidates, and underscores why the quest for the “first” novel remains as contested as it is compelling.

For centuries, *The Histories* by Herodotus, often hailed as the first work of prose narrative in European tradition, stood at the center of scholarly debate. Written in the 5th century BCE, Herodotus’ eight-volume account of the Greco-Persian Wars blends geography, archaeology, oral testimony, and fictionalized dialogue—features that prefigure the novel’s close kin.

As classical scholar Michael Gagarin observes, “Herodotus invented a mode of narration that tracks individual motives and moral choices across cultures—essentially giving birth to historical fiction’s DNA.” While “novel” as a defined genre did not exist, his use of embedded stories, character development, and dramatic tension established a prototype that later novelists would refine. The *Histories* lacked a single protagonist in the modern sense, but introduced the core elements: plot progression, first-person reflection, and the building tension of unknown outcomes.

The Case for early prose narratives beyond Herodotus

Though Herodotus’ work dominates early debates, other ancient sources hint at proto-novelistic experiments.

The fragmentary *Tales of Assyria* and the *Metamorphoses* by Apuleius (2nd century CE), though distinct in genre, share DNA with narrative fiction’s evolution. But evidence suggests Greek fiction closer to the novel’s spirit flourished in New Comedy of the 4th–3rd centuries BCE, especially the works of Menander. His plays portrayed realistic characters in plausible social conflicts, emphasizing personal dilemmas over divine intervention.

Yet these remained dramatic scripts, not prose novels. A stronger contender emerges in the *Histoire* of Callixenus of Rhodes, mentioned in Athenaeus’ *Deipnosophistae*, though its text is lost. Comparative linguistics and ancient references reveal Callixenus penned a sprawling Roman-era narrative blending history and picaresque elements—possibly the bridge between Greco-Roman prose and later novels.

Likewise, *Daphnis and Chloe* by Basileus (2nd century CE), though anonymous and likely adapted from earlier Greek material, marks a milestone: a fictional love story set in pastoral idyll with intimate character focus. Its blend of emotional realism and plot-driven progression closer to European novelty.

Then comes the monumental, often-overlooked figure: the Often Unindexed *Aurelius colder* and others shrouded in antiquity.

More concretely, the 14th-century Italian fiction *Il nome della rosa* by Umberto Eco is anachronistic—but earlier voices anchor the timeline. Infectiously vivid, Giovanni Boccaccio’s *The Decameron* (1353) synthesized oral epics, stereotyped plots, and psychologically driven stories into a structured collection of ten narrators—yet remains short-form. Yet Boccaccio’s narrative ambition sounds proto-novelistic, proving that prose fiction evolved steadily from oral epics.

The pivotal leap came with Miguel de Cervantes’ *Don Quixote* (1605), widely accepted as the first modern European novel. Though not the earliest prose tale, Cervantes fused picaresque elements, metafiction, and deep psychological insight into a grand narrative arc unmatched before. According to literary critic Hugh Davidson, “Cervantes constructed a world where fiction mirrors reality so vividly that readers question what is real—this self-aware narrative stance defines the novel’s essence.” His protagonist’s delusions and noble madness, set against a backdrop of chivalric satire, established fictional time, complex character arcs, and thematic exploration of reality vs.

imagination.

Defining the Novel: Standards Revisited

What separates a novel from earlier prose works? Scholars note several hallmarks: sustained narrative span, internal character psychology, temporal progression with causality, and thematic unity.

Early contenders—like *The Histories*—lacked consistent focus and lacked fictional time threads. *The Decameron* and *The Canterbury Tales* displayed vibrant storytelling but fragmented over discrete frames. Only *Don Quixote* wove a cohesive, evolving story of two men whose adventures mirror the tension between idealism and disillusionment.

Boccaccio’s genius lay not just in plot but in prose craft: fluent Italian, varied rhyme (when applicable), and layered narration. Yet prior traditions lingered. Apuleius’ *Metamorphoses* offered sexual escapades and transformation—but within romance, not sustained human conflict.

Herodotus’ accounts, though vast and vivid, served historical inquiry, not fictional exploration. The “novel” as we recognize it crystallized through this evolution: prose that breathes with human complexity, time, and moral depth.

Why the First Novel Remains Debatable

The absence of a clear “first” novel reflects the form’s gradual, synthactic emergence.

No single book marked a clean break from epic poetry or myth. The *Histories* pioneered prose narrative with fictionalized human focus; *Don Quixote* codified the novel’s literary identity.指定 Articles.News, academic consensus leans toward Cervantes, but scholarship remains dynamic, fueled by new papyrus finds or reinterpretations of ancient texts. As translated excerpts from lost works resurface, each discovery reshapes the narrative.

Modern debates often hinge on semantic precision: Was *The Histories* historical, or narrative? Did Herodotus intend readers to see himself as a storyteller? These questions matter, yet collectively, they center invariably on one insight: the novel did not explode fully formed.

Its roots are deep, in oral traditions, philosophical inquiries, and cultural crosscurrents—culminating in works that dared to tell fictional human stories with purpose and artistry.

What emerges is not a single author, but a lineage: Herodotus laid the prose foundation; Boccaccio and Cervantes refined the genre until *Don Quixote* crystallized it into a literary form defined by interiority, consequence, and real-world resonance. The “first European novel” is less a name than a milestone—a moment when storytelling shifted from myth to man, from epic to intimate human experience.

In that sense, both analogy and argument converge: the novel’s beginning is a tapestry, woven from ancient threads, with Cervantes’ name boldly stitched at its center.

The Enduring Legacy

From Herodotus’ linchpin narratives to Boccaccio’s hundreds, the evolution reveals a truth: the novel’s soul lies in its capacity to explore what it means to be human—flawed, hopeful, and endlessly inventive. Who wrote the first European novel may never be known in a single term, but the dialogue continues—rooted in hard evidence, driven by curiosity, and forever reaching beyond the page to ask: “What if?” This ongoing quest underscores not just literary history, but the enduring power of storytelling itself.